Our World - Environmental Education

Environmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach about how natural environments function and, particularly, how human beings can manage their behavior and ecosystems in order to live sustainably. The term is often used to imply education within the school system, from primary to post-secondary. However, it is sometimes used more broadly to include all efforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print materials, websites, media campaigns, etc. Related disciplines include outdoor education and experiential education.


Environmental education is a learning process that increases people's knowledge and awareness about the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action (UNESCO, Tbilisi Declaration, 1978).

1) What are the advantages of watershed management?

In watershed management system roots of trees hold moisture around them. When there are many trees close by as in a forest, all of them together hold large quantities of water.

1. This water gets released when that area is full of water and is unable to hold any more water further this water flows and forms into streams. So trees rained on slopes that have steps cut across them hold the rain water as it falls.

2. Watershed also increases the moisture in the soil. In places where agriculture depends only on rain water, the watershed method is most efficient.

3. The water shed method increases the moisture in the soil and prevents soil erosion as trees roots hold the soil firmly.

2. What are mangroves? Explain their protective nature?

1. Forests that grow hear sea shores are called mangroves. Mangroves grow well in delta area where the

rivers join the sea.

2. They can withstand the salt water well. We find them in good numbers in Krishna – Godavari delta areas

and also in the Ganga delta area.

3. Mangroves protect the shore from the lashing waves sunder bans in west Bengal are the largest mangrove

forests in the world.

4. Mangroves protect us from intensity of natural calamities, like tsunamis, provided we protect them.

5. We should not cut down the trees in the coastal areas.

3. Explain the term social forestry and write its advantages?

1. Man made forests are called social forests.

2. Social forests can also give us fire wood, timber needed for houses, grass for cattle, fence used for protection of fields shade and different kinds of fruits and nuts.

3. Raising social forests makes the cities cool which are otherwise becoming hotter and also ushers in rainfall.

4. If plants are grown in front of houses in colonies, in parks in offices in schools, play grounds, they develop like gardens and provide shade to all.

5. This plants filter the polluted air and provide oxygen to cities and firewood to villages.

4. What is biotechnology? Mention its uses.

Biotechnology is the combination of molecular science, micro biology and the principles of biochemistry. Use of biological process on an industrial scale to produce materials for our daily use is called biotechnology. It is the scientist that puts micro organisms to optimum use.

Uses:

1) We can produce antibodies from bacteria and fungi.

2) We can produce medicines to fight cancer; we can also grow hormones and insulin.

3 We can produce sweet substances without using sugar

4 We can manufacture abundant quantities of enzymes needed in industries.

5 We can produce better pulses and better proteins.

5. What are the causes of oilspills?

Fuels from sailing ships leak and enter the sea water .when oils and fuels are disembarks, they leak and enter the sea water.

2. Pipes supplying fuels leak and spill into the water.

3. Oils and fuels used in houses and industries pass through drains into rivers finally into the seas.

4. Rain water washes the roads and vehicles in our towns and carries the oil and grease in our towns and carries the oil and grease finally into the sea.

5. The fuels used in automobile repair shops finally reach the seas through drains and rivers.

6) What are the active causes for the thinning of ozone layer?

A) 1. Nitrogen oxides are released from vehicles, industries and supersonic jet aero planes. There gases

reach the stratosphere and weaken the ozone atoms and ozone layer gets thin allowing harmful UV rays to

reach the ground level.

2. Chlorofluoro carbons are used in refrigerators air conditioners, foam blowers and aerosols. There are

called freons. In fire extinguishers halons are used .when CFC and halons are used, the gases released from

them destroy the ozone atoms and ozone layer gets thin and harmful UV rays reach the earth. In their place,

we now get substances that cause lesser damage to the ozone layer. We need to propagate the use of these

alternatives and convince people of the serious of the problem.

7. What are Acid rains? Why do they rain?

1. Robert Endurs spoke about acid rain in 1872.

2. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released by factories and motor vehicles.

3. These gases travel thousands of kilometers, on reaching atmosphere combine with air to form sulphuric

acid and nitric acid and fall on the earth along with the rains, this is called acid rain.

8. What is the effect of El Nino?

1. It is because of El Nino that several countries in Africa and south – East Asia suffer from scanty rain fall,

drought and famines.

2. It is because of El Nino that forests in Indonesia are ablaze snow storms hit Canada floods create havoc in

south and North America and high summer heat scorches several places in our country.

9. What are the uses of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)?

1. Destruction of Natural resources affects our health. Growing number of vehicles increase the release of

harmful gases.

2. The use of Natural gas as an alternate clean fuel has started recently.

3. If vehicles using natural gas fly in the cities, it will reduce pollution and we may get more fresh air.

4. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is Colorless, odour less and lighter than air. It is mixture of hydrocarbons.

5. It is less polluting and thus environment friendly fuel.

6.”Delhi” is the only city in the world, where vehicles are running on CNG.

7. Air pollution is Delhi has come down after the use of CNG and load of harmful gases that mix the air has

reduced.

8. If we use our fuel resources competently, we may still find a way out of the mess of air pollution.

10. What is green house effect?

1. These green house gases form a layer at some height over the earth.

2. The harmful short – wave radiation emitted from the sun also reaches the earth.

3. The earth receives a part of this heat and sends back the rest into space in the form of radiation.

4. The chlorofluorocarbons, methane, carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons which envelope the earth and trap

the heat from the sun and increase the ground level temperature of the earth this is called the green house

effect.

11.What is humus?

The dead bodies of animals, fallen leaves, seeds and banks of trees decompose and become a part of the soil this is called humus.

12) What is estuary?

A) Estuary is a place in the sea that is close to the rivers. It is also called mouth of the river.

13) What is agro forestry?

A) Growing trees along with agriculture in the farm is called agro forestry.

14) What is bio piracy?

Stealthy acquisition of germplasm of plants and animals available in other plants and animals available in other places and countries and establishing proprietary rights over them is called bio piracy.

15) What does biodiversity mean?

A) Biodiversity means having a variety of plants or animals in a particular place.

16) What is “EXSITU” Protection?

A) Protection of species of plants and animals by taking them away from their natural habitat to place where

such is created artificially is called “EXSITU” protection.

Fill In The Blanks

1) _______________is the ECO friendly fuel.

2) By using __________lamps the consumption of power can be brought down.

3) ____________are called carbons sinks.

4) Wild life protection act was passed in the year of ______________

5) Forests that grow near the sea shores are called _____________

6) Azolla gives nourishment to plants that yield _______________

7) __________bird was killed for its meat and has completely vanished.

8) Our eardrum is affected if noise pollution goes beyond ____________

9) Chemical colours used in holi ___________our eyes.

10) PH value of acid rain water ranges from __________ to ___________

11) _______________is used in refrigerators.

12) CNG is ____________

13) EL NINO is a _____________________

14) If an ordinary bulb consumes 75 watts, the compact fluorescent lamp consumer’s ___________watts.

15) Having a variety of plants or animals in a particular place is called ___________

16) _____________thermometer measures the maximum and minimum temperature in a day.

17) In fire extinguishers ___________are used.

18) Fluoride in water deforms the _____________

19) Cellular phones produce _____________

20) Pesticides are not sprayed on cotton crops in ______________

21) ____________is the only city in the world where vehicles are plying on CNG.

22) ___________in water is harmful as it causes skeletal degradation.

ANSWERS

1. CNG

2. CFL

3. Grass lands

4. 1972

5. Mangroves

6. Grains

7. Dodo

8. 100 Decibels

9. Harm

10. 1.5 to 5

11. Chlorofluoro carbons

12. Compressed natural gas

13. Scanty rainfall

14. 18

15. Biodiversity

16. Six maximum and minimum

17. Halons

18. Teeth

19. Radiations

20. China

21. Delhi

22. Fluoride

Read More...

Health agencies

A state health agency (SHA), or state department of health, is a department or agency of the state governments of the United States focused on public health. The state secretary of health is a constitutional or at times a statutory official in several states of the United States. The position is the chief executive official for the state's state health agency (or equivalent), chief administrative officer for the state's Board of Health (or equivalent), or both.

1. What are the functions of health care system?
Functions of health care systems:
1. Reduction in mortality rate
2. Increase in the life expectancy
3. Decrease in population growth
4. Improvement in nutritional status
5. Provision of basic sanitation and literacy

2. What type of services are expected by any health care system?
Services of health care systems:
1. It should be able to cure and prevent the spread of the disease.
2. The systems and its activities should be acceptable to the people in the community.
3. It should allow the participation of the members of the community in its activities.
4. All the members of the community should be able to afford the cost of the treatment in other words, the treatment should be a low-cost treatment.

3. Describe the duties of village health guide.
Duties of health guide:
1. Treatment of simple ailments.
2. Giving first aid.
3. To provide information as sanitation, mother and child health care.
4. Small family norms.

4. What are the main functions of a primary-health care centre?
Functions of health care centre (PHC):
1. Medical care
2. Mother and child health care including family planning.
3. Safe water supply and basic sanitation.
4. Prevention and control of local diseases.
5. Collecting statistical information.
6. Health education.
7. Training of health guides, health workers, dayees.
8. Basic laboratory investigations.


5. How does a local dayee differ from Anganwadi worker in the nature of duties they
perform?
(or)
Write the differences between duties of Local dayees and Anganwadi worker.

Sl.No.                   LOCAL DAYEE                                     ANGANWADI WORKER
1.                  Local dayee carries out the                          Anganwadi worker is alloted by
                         deliveries in rural areas.                            integrated child development
                         She is untrained lady.                                scheme population of 1000.
2.                    Local dayee learn necessory                   Anganwadi workers are trained in
                          techniques by observation.                   various aspects of health nutrition
                           and child development.
3.                   Untrained local dayees                                 Anganwadi workers conduct
                      conduct deliveries in                                   deliveries in hygienic conditions.
                       unhygienic conditions.
4.                   Local dayee attend the                          Anganwadi workers conduct regular
                   deliveries at the patient's home.              health check up, immunization, health
                   education and non-formal pre

                            schooleducation.

Fill up the blanks:
1. Health care system is meant to improve the status of the population of ________
2. ________ are established for population size of 3000 to 5000.
3. One ________ is allotted to a population of 1000.
4. ________ is not an employee of government.
5. Each primary health centres covers a population of _______ and spread over about ________ villages.

Answers:
1. Urban and rural
2. Sub centre hospitals
3. Anganwadi worker
4. Village health guide

5. 1,00,000, 100

Read More...

First Aid

First aid is the provision of initial care for an illness or injury. It is usually performed by non-expert, but trained personnel to a sick or injured person until definitive medical treatment can be accessed. Certain self-limiting illnesses or minor injuries may not require further medical care past the first aid intervention. It generally consists of a series of simple and in some cases, potentially life-saving techniques that an individual can be trained to perform with minimal equipment.

While first aid can also be performed on all animals, the term generally refers to care of human patients.


1. What is first aid?
♦ The immediate and temporary aid/care given to a victim who met an accident or suddenly falls sick is called first aid.

2. What is the purpose of first aid?
♦ Purpose of first aid is
1. To keep the victim alive
2. To releave pain or distress
3. To prevent the condition going bad till the doctor attends to the victim or the victim is reached to the hospital.

3. What are rules of first aid?
1. Do the things in orderly manner without overacting.
2. Make sure the victim is able to breathe properly since every second is important for the survival of the victim.
3. If bleeding make immediate efforts to stop the bleeding.
4. To minimise the trauma or shock, see that the victim is handled gently and by shifting the victim is minimum possible distance.
5. Care should be taken in not overdoing things which might worsen the condition of the victim.
6. Do not allow the people to crowd arround the victim.
7. Play cool and assure the victim that he is in safe hands and will be getting medical help soon.

4. What is fracture? Mention the types of fractures and explain them.
♦ A broken bone is called a fracture. Types of fractures.
1. Simple fracture: The fracture without wound.
2. Compound fracture: In compound fracture, a wound is seen at the site of fracture. In this fracture broken ends of the bones peirce through the skin.
3. Complicated fracture: In complicated fracture, the internal organs such as liver, brain, heart, intestine etc are damaged.
4. Comminuted fracture: In comminuted fracture the bone is broken at several places.
5. Impact fracture: In impact fracture the broken ends of the fractured bone are drives into one another.
6. Green stick fracture: In green stick fracture the bone just bends but does not break. This is usually seen in children.

5. What are the symptoms of fracture?
Symptoms of fractures:
1. Pain at the site of fracture.
2. Inability of the affected area to bear even the slightest pressure due to its tenderness.
3. Swelling at the site of fracture.
4. Inability to move the injured part.
5. Shortening of limbs due to the contraction of muscles followed by the piling of the broken ends of bones are above the other.
6. Unnatural movement of limb at the site of fracture.
7. Cracking or rubbing sound at the site of fracture.

6. What is first aid will render for fractures?
1. Treat the fractures at the site of the accident. Victim should not be moved unnecessarily.
2. First attend to wounds which are bleeding. Clean the wounds and make efforts to stop bleeding.
3. Clean the injured part with cotton and give support to the fractured limb with splints of wood. This will stop bleeding and prevents damage to the blood vessels, nerves and muscles.
4. Arrest the movement of the fractured bone by using splints and bandage. Bandage should be applied around the fracture site but not over the fractured bone.
5. Make arrangements for shifting the patient to a nearest doctor or to a hospital.

Fill in the blanks:
1. A German called _______ was the originator of first aid.
2. First aid was made popular by St. John's _______ service in 1879.
3. The bone is broken at several places is called _______ fracture.
4. Green stick fracture is seen in _______
5. Simple fracture is also called as _______

Answers
1. Esmarch
2. Ambulance
3. Comminuted
4. Children
5. Closed fractors

Read More...

Tropical Diseases

Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions. The diseases are less prevalent in temperate climates, due in part to the occurrence of a cold season, which controls the insect population by forcing hibernation. Insects such as mosquitoes and flies are by far the most common disease carrier, or vector. These insects may carry a parasite, bacterium or virus that is infectious to humans and animals. Most often disease is transmitted by an insect "bite", which causes transmission of the infectious agent through subcutaneous blood exchange. Vaccines are not available for any of the diseases listed here, and many do not have cures.

Human exploration of tropical rainforests, deforestation, rising immigration and increased international air travel and other tourism to tropical regions has led to an increased incidence of such diseases.

1. What is a disease and what is the process of disease?

- Disease is a condition in which normal body functions are disturbed either temporarily or permanently.

- They are several stages from the time the disease causing organisms enter our body and the person becomes sick. These stages together are called process of disease.

2. What is infection?

- The entry of a disease causing organism into our body is called infection. It is a beginning stage of a disease.

3. How tetanus germs are transferred into the body?

- Tetanus is a disease produced by the toxins of some soil bacteria.

- The disease is transferred into the body by direct physical contat when the disease causing organisms enter the body through a wound.

4. What is incubation period?

- The gap or period between infection by a pathogen (disease causing organism) and appearance of disease symptoms is called incubation period.

5. What is a symptom?

- The occurence of any change in normal function or activity in the body associated with a particular disease is called symptom.

6. In which part of the blood schizonts develop?

- Schizonts develop from the red Blood Cells. Each Schizont breaks and gives 6-24 merozoits.

7. What are the symptoms of mumps?

Symptoms of Mumps:

1. There will be a pain in opening the mouth.

2. Ear ache

3. Fever

4. Swelling of Cheeks.

8. What are the symptoms of malaria?

1. Extreme chill or cold

2. High temparated fever (106°F)

3. Profuse sweating

4. Severe headache

5. Body pains

9. What are the methods by which diseases are transmitted. Give two examples for

each infection?

- There are several methods by which a disease causing organism can be transferred from

the reservior to the host organism. They are:

1. Direct Contact: Disease causing organisms may be transferred immediately from reservior or carrier to a health person by direct physical contact. This type of transfer is seen in diseases where thedisease-causing organism can't live for longer time out side

the body of human heart.

Ex: AIDS, Skin and Eye infections, Tetanus.

2. Droplet Infection: Droplets of saliva which contains disease causing organism are sprayed out when sick persons cough, sneeze or split.

Ex: Whooping cough, Tuberculosis, Chicken pox, Common Cold.

3. Vehicle Borne transmission: In this mode of transmission the disease causing organism is transmitted through another living animal which is called as vector. The most common insect vectors are flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches etc.

Ex: Palgue, malaria, Elephantiasis.

4. Air borne transmission: Air act as carrier or vehicle for transferring same of the disease causing orgamisms.

Ex: T.B., influenza, chicken pox, measles etc.

5. Unhygienic Habits: Eating food without washing hands, eating food or drinking water from unhygienic sources also causes the transfer of disease causing organisms.

Ex: Mad Cow disease.

10.Give different causes for the occurence of Jaundice? 

Causes of "Jaundice":

1. Excessive production of bilirubin causes "Jaundice". This "Excessive production of bilirubin" Occurs in some disease due to destruction of large number of red blood cells in the liver.

2. Jaundice may be caused due to "obstruction to the flow of bile". This may occur when bile is flowing from liver to gall bladder or from all bladder to intestine.

3. Jaundice may occur when stones are formed in the gall bladder.

4. Jaundice may occur due ot improper functioning or death of liver cells. Liver cells are destroyed by 'hepatitis virus".

5. In "infants", the disease jaundice is transmitted from mother to child during child birth. It may also transmitted through contaminated food, water and milk.

6. Another reasons for jaundice are taking food that is contaminated with hapatotoxins, improper nutrition and drinking alcohol etc.

11.What care is to be taken for the patient suffering with Jaundice?

General care for jaundice:

1. Patient must be given strict bed rest.

2. Patient must be under constant supervision of a doctor.

3. Utensils, clothing etc. Used by the patient should be kept separate and should be washed separately.

4. Small quantities of food should b e given at a time.

5. Food should include plenty of fruits, fruit juices, glucose and maltose.

6. Foods that are rich in calories such as rice, bread etc. should be given.

7. Tea, Coffee, spices and fried foods should not be given.

8. Before giving blood transfusion, the donor's blood must be tested for the presence of hepatitis virus.

9. Injection needles and syringes must be changed for every injection.

12.Why encephalitis is a fatal disease? How it is caused?

Encephalitis:

1. Encephalitis is caused by a group of viruses known as "Arboviruses".

2. Encephalitis mostly spreads from one animal to another animal or from animal to man through the ''culex" mosquitoes.

3. Incubation period for encephalitis is 5 to 15 days.

4. Encephalitis starts with mild fever and headache, Slowly increases the intensity of disease. Later there will be high fever and convulsions (fits). Central nervous system is effected and this may lead to ''coma'' and ''death''. Due to this, encephalitis is a ''fatal disease''.

5. Encephalitis virus also affects several animals and birds. Pigs, Cattle, poultry and other birds are the major vertebrate hosts for this virus.

6. Infected animals do not show any signs of illness. However, they acts as reservoir and

mosquitoes are the carriers.

7. There is no specific cure for encephalitis. Reducing population of pigs and mosquitoes and use of mosquito nets are the methods to control the spread of this disease.

13.Describe the changes in the life cycle of malarial parasite, that occur in man? 

Life cycle of malarial parasite in man:

1. The malaria parasite proliferates in man by "asexual reproduction".

2. Malarial parasite spends its life cycle both in liver and erythrocytes of man. Life cycle in liver is called ''Pre-erythrocytic cycle" and life cycle in erythrocytes is called "Erythrocytic cycle".

3. Pre-erythrocytic cycle:

             i) When infected female anopheles mosquito bites, infectious stage of the parasite called ''sporozoites'' enter into the blood of host.

                       ii) The stage of the life cycle, which is ready to infection is called ''infectious stage"

                       iii) Sporozoite spends about 30 minutes in blood and enters to the liver cells.

                       iv) Sporozoites feed on the contents of liver cell and fill the entire cell. This stage is called "Crypto -schizoite" state.

                       v) "Crypto-schizoite'' Stage.

                       vi) The liver cell rupturers and crypto-merozoites are released into blood. Some of the crypto merozoites invade new liver cells and proliferate more in number. As these changes occur in the liver cells are called as "pre-erythrocytic cycle".

                        vii) Time period for pre-erythrocytic cycle is 7 to 17 days.

                                Sporozoite → Cripto-Schizonte → Criptomerozoite

4. Erythrocytic Cycle:

i) Life cycle of malarial parasite in RBC is called "Erythrocytic cycle".

ii) Cryptomerozoite feeds on the contents of red blood cells and grows in size. When fully grown, they occupy the entire inner space of RBC and are called "Schizontes".

iii) The schizontes divides repeatedly and produce 6 to 24 merozoites.

iv) The red blood cell ruptures and releases the ''merozoites'' into the blood.

v) The merozoites again attack new red blood cells and produce more number of merozoites. This phase of the cycle is called "Erythrocytic cycle", as it occurs in RBC.

vi) After few generations, some of the merozoites develop into "gametocytes" in the red blood cells. There are two types of gametocytes-Macrogametocytes and Microgametocytes.

                         Criptomerozoite → Schizonte → Merozoite → Gametocytes

14.Describe changes in the malarial parasite, that occur in mosquito?

1. The part of the malarial parasite life cycle in mosquito is called "sexual cycle", as the parasite proliferates by sexual reproduction.

2. When the mosquito sucks the blood from infected person, gametocytes enter its digestive system.

3. Gametocytes migrate into the walls of the digestive system of mosquito and undergo further development.

4. Marcogametocyte develops into macrogameter, which is equivalent to unfertilized ovum.

5. Microgametocyte divides further and gives rise to microgametes, which are equivalent to sperms.

6. Both macrogameter and microgamete fuse to give to a "zygote"

7. The zygote migrates to the outer layers of the wall (wall of the digestive system). It grows in size and divides to produce a large number of "sporozoites".

8. The sporozoites migrate to the salivary glands of mosquito and settle in the tubules.

Fill up the blanks

1. Common cold, chicken pox are spred by ______ infection.

2. During stage of ________ parasites release toxin and interfere with normal functioning

of the host.

3. Mumps mostly effects _________ glands.

4. Measles caused by __________

5. The primary host of malarial parasite is ________

6. Gametocytes are developed from the stage of _______

7. Merozoits are released by the rupture of ________ cells

8. ________ is only the drug to treat elephantiasis or Filariasis.

9. In the mosquito, sporozoits are present in ___________

10. The incubation periood of encephalities ________

Answers:

1. Drop let

2. Manifestation

3. Parotid

4. Paramyxo virus

5. Mosquito

6. Merozoits

7. Red blood

8. Diethyl Carbamazine

9. Salivary Glands

10. 5-15 days

Read More...

Nutrition

Nutritional science investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body to diet. With advances in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, nutritional immunology, molecular medicine and genetics, the study of nutrition is increasingly concerned with metabolism and metabolic pathways: the sequences of biochemical steps through which substances in living things change from one form to another.

Carnivore and herbivore diets are contrasting, with basic nitrogen and carbon proportions being at varying levels in particular foods. Carnivores consume more nitrogen than carbon[citation needed] while herbivores consume less nitrogen than carbon, when an equal quantity  is measured.

The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite), both in the human body and in the plant and animal organisms that humans eat.

The human body consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the bloodstream to feed the cells of the body. Except in the unborn fetus, the digestive system is the first system involved[vague]. In a typical adult, about seven liters of digestive juices enter the digestive tract.[citation needed][clarification needed] These digestive juices break chemical bonds in ingested molecules, and modify their conformations and energy states. Though some molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix of foods. Unabsorbed matter, along with some waste products of metabolism, is eliminated from the body in the feces.

Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all material excreted and eliminated from the body (in urine and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of human nutrition is still slowly evolving.

In particular, the consumption of whole-plant foods slows digestion and allows better absorption, and a more favorable balance of essential nutrients per Calorie, resulting in better management of cell growth, maintenance, and mitosis (cell division), as well as better regulation of appetite and blood sugar[citation needed]. Regularly scheduled meals (every few hours) have also proven more wholesome than infrequent or haphazard ones although a recent study has also linked more frequent meals with a higher risk of colon cancer in men.

1)What are Nutrients?

The chemical substances those required for growth and development of the body, energy production and body building are called Nutrients.

2) What is Nutrition?

The procurement of Nutrients is called Nutrition (or) intake of Nutrients is called Nutrition.

3) Name fire complex carbohydrates?

Cellulose, sucrose, lactose, glycogen, and starch are some of the examples of carbohydrates.

4) What is balanced diet?

Food having all the Nutrients is quantities required for the body is called balance diet.

5) Write brief note on calcium/or. In what way calcium helps the body?

• Calcium is the major element required for our body.

• It is required for the formation of bones, teeth, coagulation of blood.

• It requires for the production of milk in the lactating females and also for muscle contraction

• Calcium is available in milk, milk products, green leafy vegetables etc.

• Calcium required for our body is about 400- 500 milligrams per day.

6)Write brief note on Iron?

• Iron is the major element present in the Haemoglobin.

• About 60-70 % of iron in the body is present in blood

• Iron helps to carry oxygen from lungs to the tissues.

• Iron is available in liver, meat, fish, cereals nuts, green leafy vegetables and dried fruits.

• Deficiency of iron causes anemia.

7) What is flurosis? How does it affect the body?

• Fluorine is a trace element. It is present is the ground water.

• Fluorine is required for the formation of bones and enamel on the teeth.

• In some areas of our state drinking water has large amount of fluorides. People living in these areas intake more fluorides than the requirement through drinking water. This leads to a disease called fluorosis

• Affects of fluorosis: The teeth become yellow in colour and bone deformations are seen. As a result people can’t stand erect and walk properly.

• There is no cure for this disease and the only way to avoid fluorosis is to remove fluorine from drinking water.

8) Write short note on Iodine?

• Iodine is required for the production on thyroxin from thyroid gland.

• Deficiency of Iodine results in hypothyroidism and enlargement of thyroid gland, this is known as goiter.

• Due to hypothyroidism, there is a reduction in metabolic rate and physical growth.

• Sea foods like marine fishes are the best sources for Iodine.

• To reduce iodine deficiency in people, government has passed a law, prohibiting the sale of salt without Iodine for domestic use.

• Small amounts of iodine is present in milk, meat and vegetables.

9) What is malnutrition? Mention the reasons for malnutrition?

Eating of food that does not have one or more than one nutrients in required amount is known as malnutrition.

Reasons for malnutrition:

• Willful starvation or low food intake.

• Poor health of individual due to infections.

• Lack of awareness of nutritional qualities of food.

• Socio economic factors such as poverty etc.

• Poor quality of housing, sanitation and water supply also contributes to ill health.

10)What are the effects of kwashiorkor on children?

Kwashiorkor is an African word- it means displaced child. It is caused by due to deficiency of proteins in the

diet.

1. Child growth is slowed down.

2. Development of muscles will be very poor.

3. Face will be fluffy and moon shaped.

4. Body parts became swollen due to accumulation water in the interest cellular spaces.

5. Lack of interest or irritability in playing and learning.

6. Difficulty in eating food.

7. The child very frequently suffers with diarrhea.

8. Child becomes lethargic

9. The skin becomes dry and loose

10. Hair become thin and does not have normal shine.

11)Write brief note on Marasmus?

Marasmus is a disease caused due to the deficiency of both proteins and calories.

1. Child is reduced to skin and bones due to extreme wasting of muscles.

2. Failure to gain weight or loss of body weight.

3. Loose and saggy appearance of skin.

4. The child affected with marasmus has sunken eyes.

5. The limbs become thin and the ribs appear very prominent.

6. Less developed muscles with loose folds of skin.

7. Inadequate growth of hair having a faded appearance.

8. Vulnerable to infections and diarrhea due to inadequate body defense mechanism.

9. Lack of interest in physical and mental activities.

12) How is obesity considered as a health hazard?

Obesity is considered as a health hazard due to the following reasons...

1. Obese people are not very active.

2. Obese people are more prone to diseases like diabetes.

3. Obese people are more cholesterol in his /her blood. This leads to cardiovascular diseases like hypertension, heart attack etc.

4. Obesity causes disorders of the liver and kidney.

Steps to control obesity:

1. The only way to treat obesity is to increase the energy expenditure and reduce the energy in taken.

2. Regular exercise is required to increase the energy expenditure.

3. Exercise must be done under proper supervision; otherwise it leads to cardiovascular problems.

4. Weight reduction must be gradual and should not be sudden.

5. To reduce energy in take obese people are advised to reduce eating of energy rich foods.

6. Obese persons are advised to take more balanced and fiber high foods.

13) Which cells of the body are responsible for obesity and why?

Adipose tissue is responsible for obesity due to over eating, excess of energy is converted to fat and it is stored in the cells of adipose tissue. As a result, the size and the number of adipose cells increase and it leads to obesity.

Fill in the blanks:

1. Cane sugar is called __________(sucrose)

2. Milk sugar is called __________(lactose)

3. Deficiency of iodine results in __________(simple goiter)

4. Deficiency of iron causes _____________(anemia)

5. Excessive intake of fluorine results in ___________(fluorosis)

6. The energy released by one gram of glucose in __________(4.k.cal )

7. The energy released by ‘1’ gram of fat is ___________(9.45 k. cal )

8. Bone deformities occur due to the excessive intake of __________(fluorine )

9. In the body excess fat is stored in ___________(Adipose tissue )

10. Deficiency of proteins is called ___________(kwashiorkor).

Read More...

Vitamins

A vitamin  is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited amounts.An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems but there is little evidence of benefit when used by those who are otherwise healthy.

By convention, the term vitamin includes neither other essential nutrients, such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids (which are needed in larger amounts than vitamins) nor the large number of other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required less often.Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present.

Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" refers to a number of vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body, and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well.

Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C). The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as precursors for enzyme cofactors, that help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism. In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.

Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing season) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitamins ingested. However, vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive semisynthetic and synthetic-source multivitamin dietary and food supplements and additives, since the middle of the 20th century.

Q. What are the sources of Vitamins for our body?

Ans: Vitamins are available to our body by two sources. They are 1) diet, 2) Bacteria present is the intestine. These bacteria synthesis the Vitamins and supply them to the body.

Q. Name the various Vitamins in B.Complex Vitamins?

Ans: B.Complex is the group of several B. Vitamins.

It contains              Thaimine(B1)

                              Riboflavin (B2)

                              Niacin/Nictonic Acid (B3)

                              Cyanocobalamin (B12)

                              Pyridoxine (B6)

                              Folic Acid

                             Panto thermic Acid and Biotin.

Q. Mention the disease caused by the deficiency of pyridoxine?

Ans: Dificiency of phyridoxine leads to hyper irritability, anonemia, nausea and vomitings. In Childrens pyridoxine dificiency causes convulsions (fits).

Q. What is the method evolved by the National institute of Nutrition in Hyderabad to prevent blindness in children ?

Ans: National institute of Nutrition in Hyderabad had evolved a method for the prevention of night blindness and loss of vision due to dificiency of vitamin 'A' in children,by giving a large dose of Vitamins 'A' to school Children once in six months.

Q. Mention the water soluble Vitamins and explain any five of them?

Ans: Water soluble Vitamins are 

1. Thiamine/B1

2) Riboflavin B2,

 3) Niacin/Nictonic Acid B3, 

4) Pyridoxine B6, 

5) Folic Acid B5,

6) Cyanocobalamin B12, 

7) Panto thermic Acid,

 8) Biotin,

 9) Vitamin C.

Vitamin B1: It is Chemicaly known as Thiamine.

♦ It is necessor for the activity of some of the enzymes of carbohydrates metabilism. 

Source of Vitamin B1: It is available in cereals, like Wheat, Oil Seeds like groundnut, milk, meat, fish, Eggs and Vegetables.

Deficiency of Vitamin - B1: Leads to Beri-Beri and loss appetite.

Vitamin B2: It is other wise known as Riboflavin.

♦ It is essential for oxidation - reduction reactions

Sources: It is available in milk, Eggs, liver, kidney and green leafy vegetables.

Deficiency: This Vitamin leads Glossitis, cracking of month at angles.

Vitamin B3: It is otherwise known as Niacin or Nicotinic Acid. Niacin is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

Sources: It is available is Kidney's, Liver, meat, poultry, fish, leagunes and groundnut.

Deficiency: Leads to pellagra. It is askin disease.

Vitamin B6: It is chemically known as pyridoxine.

♦ It plays important role in the metabolism of amino Acids.

Sources of B6: It is available in milk, liver, meat, Egg Yolk, Fish, Whole grain cereals, legumes and Vegetables.

Dificiency: Leads to anaemia, Hyper irritability, disorders of nervous system.

Folic Acid/B5: It is required for the synthesis of Nucleic Acids (DNA+RNA) and also required for the development of Blood Cells in the bone marrow.

Source of B5: It is available in liver, meat, Eggs, milk, fruits, cereals and leafy vegetables.

Deficiency: Anaemia, Diarrhea, loss of Lencoaytes.

Vitamin B12: It also known as Cyanocobalamine.

♦ It has an important role in the metabolism of nucleic acids and in protein synthesis. It is not available in ready made food.

Deficiency: Vitamin B12 leads to permicious anaemia.

Q. Write brief not on Vitamin C.

Ans: Vitamin -C: It is also known as Ascarbic Acid. Vitamin C plays an important role in issue oxidation reactions and is required for the formation of collagen.

♦ Collagen is required for the formation of blood vesses, connective tissue, cartilage and dentin of teeth

♦ Vitamin C also helps in the absorptian and storage of iron. It is also helps in healing of wounds and fractures of bones.

Sources of Vitatamin-C: It is present in fresh fruits, green leafy vegetables, tomatoes and germinoting pulses. Citrus fruits and Indian gooseberry (Amla) are the richest sources of Vitamin.

Deficiency: It leads to a disease calle "SCURVY" in this disease the gums swell and start bleeding.

Q. Mention fat soluble Vitamins and explain them, Vitamin A, D, E and K are the fat

soluble Vitamins.

Ans:

Vitamin-A: It is otherwise known as Retinol. It is required for normal vision. It helps in the production of pigments such as Rhodopsin of rods and Idopsin of cones.

Sources: It is available is liver, Eggs, butter whole milk, fish, meat, cod liver oil and Shark liver oil, spinach, amaranthus, carrots, tomato, pumpkin, papaya and mango.

Deficiency: Leads to night blindness, xeropthatmia rupture of cornea, scale formation on skin.

Vitamin-D: It is chemically known as calceferol. It helps is the absorption of calcium and phosphyorus by the intestive and their depositian in the bone. It also required for the normal growth of bones.

Sources: Liver, Egg Yolk, butter, Cod liver oil and Shark liver oil.

Deficiency: Leads to Rickets (Such as knowk knees, bow legs, deformed pelvin)

Vitamin-E: It is chemically known as Tocoberol. It is ohterwise known as anti sterility Vitamin. This vitamin is required for the normal functioning of sex organs.

Sources: It is present in fruits, vegetables, germinating seeds, meat, Egg Yolk and Sunlflower oil, Cotton seed oil etc.

Dificiency: Leads to steritity in males, abortions in females, reduced life span of R.B.C.

Vitamin- K: It is chemically known as phillo quinone. It is required for blood cogulation.

Source: This Vitamin present in green leafy vegetables and milk.

Deficiency: Leads to delay in blood clothing.

Fill in the blanks:

1. Vitamin B1 is also called Thiamine

2. Deficiency of Vitamin C causes a disease called Scurvey

3. When rice is polished or repeatedly washed Vitamin B1 Vitamin is lost from it

4. The Vitamin that prevents stability is males in Vitamin E/Tocoferol

5. Rickes is caused due to deficiency of Vitamin D.

6. The Vitamin that is highly sensitive to heat is called Vitamin-C

7. The Vitamin requried for coagulation of blood is Vitamin K

8. Deficiency of pantothermic acid results in burning of feet

9. The Vitamin that plays an important role in the metabolism of nuclic acids is Cyanocobalamine

10.Pellagra is caused by due to deficiency of B3 Vitamin

Note: From this lesson minimum 5 marks we will be expected from Board Exam.

Read More...

HIV-AIDS

The initial period following the contraction of HIV is called acute HIV, primary HIV or acute retroviral syndrome. Many individuals develop an influenza-like illness or a mononucleosis-like illness 2–4 weeks post exposure while others have no significant symptoms.Symptoms occur in 40–90% of cases and most commonly include fever, large tender lymph nodes, throat inflammation, a rash, headache, and/or sores of the mouth and genitals.The rash, which occurs in 20–50% of cases, presents itself on the trunk and is maculopapular, classically.Some people also develop opportunistic infections at this stage.Gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting or diarrhea may occur, as may neurological symptoms of peripheral neuropathy or Guillain-Barre syndrome. The duration of the symptoms varies, but is usually one or two weeks.

Due to their nonspecific character, these symptoms are not often recognized as signs of HIV infection. Even cases that do get seen by a family doctor or a hospital are often misdiagnosed as one of the many common infectious diseases with overlapping symptoms. Thus, it is recommended that HIV be considered in patients presenting an unexplained fever who may have risk factors for the infection.

1) Expand HIV and AIDS?

AIDS: Acquired Immuno Deficiency syndrome

HIV: Human Immune Deficiency Virus

2) What are the enzymes present in the HIV?

Enzymes present in the HIV are

1. Reverse Transcriptase

2. Integrase

3. Protease

3) Name the Tests to detect HIV antibodies?

Test to detect HIV: There are three types of blood tests

1. ELISA – Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay

2. PCR - polymerase chain Reaction

3. Western Blot Test (WBT) -  The blood tests detect the presence or absence of Antibodies to confirm the HIV positive /negative status respectively.

4) What are the modes of HIV transmission?

HIV may infect in four routes. They are

1. Blood – when the infected blood is given to other person

2. Sex – when one of the partners is infected.

3. Syringes and needles: when unsterilized syringes and needles are used

4. Mother to child – when the mother is suffering with AIDS. The child born to her may get disease.

5) Why life skills are necessary for everyone to face the challenge of life especially in the context of HIV –AIDS? Which life skills one must have to practice?

In order to face the challenges like HIV – AIDS, it is desirable that the children develop certain life skills

like….

1. Decision making skills: This means critical thinking and making right decisions in life.

2. Interpersonal skills: Healthy relationship between friends and classmates etc.

3. Communication skills: Freely expressing their views, fears, doubts, anxiety etc.

4. Handling peer pressure: Making value judgments on request from friends etc.

5. Coping skills: To adjust with situations of life.

6. Building caring relationships: Respecting friends and others, especially of the opposite gender.

6) Write briefly about stages of HIV-AIDS (or) explain the stages of HIV-AIDS?

There are four stages in HIV infected person:

1. Acute HIV infection: it is an illness, which occurs in an individual when infected by HIV usually within 2-6 weeks. At this stage, there are high levels of virus in blood. There are no Antibodies.

2. HIV Positive “A symptomatic period”:p At this stage the person is tested positive for HIV antibodies but remains without symptoms. Usually this stage lasts for about 3-5 years.

3. HIV positive symptomatic period: In this stage immunity decreases, the person gets symptoms like fever, loose motions, and skin diseases, which persist for considerable time. This period lasts for 2-3

years.

4. AIDS stage: It is usually 5-10 years after the entry of HIV the persons reach AIDS stage. In this stage the disease fighting capacity of the body is greatly reduced due to deficiency of immune system.

7) Name the two scientists who discovered HIV?

 HIV was discovered independently by Luc Montagnaire in 1983 at Paris and Robert Gallo at USA in 1984.

8) Which enzyme is responsible for the unique nature of HIV?

Reverse transcriptase is the enzyme responsible for unique nature of HIV.

9) Give two ways by which HIV is not infected?

A) HIV is not spread through sharing food, touching and hugging, kissing on cheeks, shaking hands, sharing toilet seats, caring for someone with HIV or AIDS, sharing belongings and through mosquitoes and other insects bite.

10) Is there any cure for AIDS?

NO. There is no cure for AIDS but only prevention i.e. education and awareness of the HIV- AIDS.

Fill up the blanks:

1. A person who talks freely had ____________skills

2. The late stage of HIV infection is ________________

3. First AIDS case was detected in India is ____________

4. First AIDS case was detected in Andhra Pradesh _________

5. In A.P approximately 91% of HIV infections are due to the _________mode of transmission.

6. One who can maintain relationship with friends has ________________skills.

7. _____________skill needed to take right decision.

8. HIV can be detected through _____________

9. More than 50% of new infection of HIV-AIDS is occurring in ___________of age group.

10. ________________ enzyme is present in HIV

ANSWERS

1. COMMUNICTION

2. AIDS STAGE

3. 1986

4. 1987

5. SEXUAL

6. INTERPERSONAL

7. CRITICAL THINKING

8. BLOOD TEST

9. 15-24 YEARS

10. REVERSE TRANCRIPTASE

Read More...

Human Reproduction System

The reproductive system or genital system is a system of sex organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones, and pheromones are also important accessories to the reproductive system. Unlike most organ systems, the sexes of differentiated species often have significant differences. These differences allow for a combination of genetic material between two individuals, which allows for the possibility of greater genetic fitness of the offspring.

1. Why should we have a knowledge of human Reproductive system?
- It is essential to have a knowledge of human Reproductive system such as the process of reproduction, embryonic development and child birth to control the growth of population and to prevent diseases like AIDS.

2. Describe the structure of Human spermatozoa?
Structure of Human spermatozoa
- Human sperms are minute, microscopic and motile Human sperm has mainly four parts, they are head,
neck, middle piece and long tail.
- Head piece consist of a large haploid nucleus.
- A sac like structure present as Head piece is called Acrosome which helps to penetrate the sperm cell into the ovum during Fertilization.
- Middle piece contains several mitochondria which produce energy required for the movement of sperm cells.
- Tail piece helps in swimming the spermatozoa to reach the ovum for fertilization.
- Spermatozoa live for a period of 24-72 hours in the female reproductive system.

3. Give an account of Fallopion tubules.
- The tubes which are present on either side of the uterus are called fallopion tubule.
- The ovum released from the ovarian follicle enters into fallpion tubule.
- The Anterior end of fallopian tubule in funnel like structure with several finger like structure and they are ciliated. posterior end of the fallopion tube opens into uterus.
- Ovum that is released from the graffian follicle enters into uterus through fallopion tube.
- Cilia helps in the movement of ovum from fallopion into uterus. Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubule of human beings.

4. Explain the menstrual cycle?
Menstrual cycle:
In the female reproductive system several changes takes place mainly in ovaries fallopain tubes and uterus in a cyclic manner during ovulation is called menstrual cycle.
- The time period for each menstrual cycle is 28-30 days mestrual cycle has two phases. They are
1. Proliferative phase
2. Secretary phase

Proliferative Phase:
The first phase of menstrual cycle is called proliferative phase and it takes 12-14 days.
- The cells present in the follicle, fallopian tube uterus and vagina increase in number by repeated mitotic divisions during proliferative phase.
- During proliferative phase the follicle mature and releases ovule usually on 14th day of menstrual
ovule usually on 14th day of menstrual cycle.

Secretory Phase:
The Secondary phase of menstrual cycle is called secretory phase. It takes 14-16 days. The ruptured follicle is converted to corpus luteum and uterine walls are thickened during secretory phase.
- The uterus is ready to attach the embryo during secretory phase.
- If fertilization does not occur within 26th day of menstrual cycle the cells of corpus luteum and are
expelled out along with some amount of blood.

5. Give an account of the various contraceptive method?
There are two methods to control the child births. They are abortions and contraceptive methods.
Abortion:
Pregnancy terminated by using drugs is called abortion. It is not safe to the health of the mother.

Contraceptive Methods:
The method which prevent pregnancy are called contraceptive methods. These are different in males and females.

Contraceptive methods in males:
1. Use of condoms
2. Use of drugs to prevent the production of spermatozoa.
3. Vas differences is blocked to prevent the fertilization is called 'vasectomy'
4. In recent years, efforts are being made to develop nasal sprays and vaccines to prevent ovulation.

Contraceptive methods in females:
1. Ovulation is prevented by using hormonal tablets.
2. Inter-uterine devices are used to prevent the sperm from reaching the ovum.
3. Spermicidal drugs are used to kill the sperms.
4. In addition to these surgical methods are used to block the fallopian tubes to prevent the entry of spermatozoa, which is called ''Tubectami''.

6. What is ovulation?
- The discharge of the ovum from ovarian follicle is called corpus luteum.

8. What is implantation?
- The attachment of the embryo to the walls of uterus is called implantation.

Fill up the blanks
1. Foetus is _____ to the walls of uterus by _____
2 The third month of uterus is called _____
3. Acrosome of spermatozoan helps in _____
4. Hormone that control menstrual cycle are secreted by _____
5. After releasing from follicle the ovum enters _____
6. Semen is produced by _____ glands.
7. Leutinizing Hormone is secreted by _____
8. The first phase of menstrual cycle is _____
9. The outer layer of the embryo is called _____

Answers
1. attached, placenta
2. connected, umbilical cord
3. Foetus
4. Fertilization
5. Pitutiary Gland
6. Fallopian Tube
7. Accessory
8. Pituitary Gland
9. Proliferative phase

10.Chorion

Read More...

Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Insect species make up more than two-thirds of all extant animal species, and most insect species use sex for reproduction, though some species are facultatively parthenogenetic. Many species have sexual dimorphism, while in others the sexes look nearly identical. Typically they have two sexes with males producing spermatozoa and females ova. The ova develop into eggs that have a covering called the chorion, which forms before internal fertilization. Insects have very diverse mating and reproductive strategies most often resulting in the male depositing spermatophore within the female, which stores the sperm until she is ready for egg fertilization. After fertilization, and the formation of a zygote, and varying degrees of development; the eggs are deposited outside the female in many species, or in some, they develop further within the female and live born offspring are produced.

1. How zygote is produced ?

- Zygote is formed by the fusion of male and female gametes. It is diploid in condition.

2. What is fertilization ?

1. Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.

2. Fertilization is of two types. They are

1.External fertilization, 2. Internal fertilization.

1. External fertilization : If the fusion of male and female gametes occurs outside the body of animal, it is called External fertilization.

Ex : Earth worm, Frog, Fish etc.

2.Internal fertilization: If the fusion of male and female gametes occurs inside the body of animal it is called as internal fertilization.

Ex : Insects, Reptiles, Aves and Mammals.

3. What is Hermaphrodite?

- The Animal which consist of both male and female reproductive organs is called hermaphrodite.

Ex: Earworm

- Hermaphroditism is seen in some phyla. They are Protozoa, coelenterata, ptatyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida and mollusca.

4. What is synkaryon ?

- The structure which is formed by the fusion of male pronucleus with female pronucleus is called 'synkaryon ' or zygotic nucleus .

5. What is the function of spermatheca are present in the earthworm and these structures help the earthworm?

- Three pairs of spermatheca are present in the earthworm and these structures help the earthworm to store spermatozoa which accepted from another earthworm during copulation.

- During Copulation two earthworms meet in opposite direction.

6. What is Milt and Spawn?

- Milt: Thousands of Spermatozoa are discharged in a group from Testis in male frog. This called Milt.

Spawn: Large number of Eggs are released as a mass from ovaries in the frog. This mass of eggs is called as spawn.

7. What are amplexury pads? How do they help the frog?

- The pads which are present on the index fingers of the fore limbs in the male frog are called as Amplexury pads. They help in copulation

9. Describe male Reproductive system of Frog?

Male Reproductive system of Frog:

1. Male Reproductive system of the Frog consist of a pair of testis and a pair of urinogenital duct.

2. Testis are oval and yellow bodies. Each testis is attached to the kidney.

3. Inside the Testis there are number of coiled tubules called seminiferous tubules. Spermatozoa are produced in the seminiferous tubules. These tubules open into vasa efferentia.

4. Each Testis open into kidney through 10-12 tubes called vasa efferentia.

5. Spermatozoa that are produced in seminiferous tubules of Testis, enter into the kidney through vasa-efferentia.

6. The two urinogenital ducts that arise from kidneys run posteriorly and open into a chamber called cloaca in the male frog.

7. Urinogenital ducts are common for the passage of urine and spermatozoa.

8. The cloacal chamber is a common chamber for the passage of spermatozoa, urine and faeces.

9. Cloaca opens to the outside through cloacal aperture.

10.Describe the female Reproductive system of Frog?

1. The female Reproductive system of Frog consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, cloaca and cloacal aperture.

2. A pair of ovaries are attached to kidneys.

3. Ovaries are sac like structures with several lobes. They are greyish or blackish in colour.

4. Inside the ovary numerous chambers called follicles are present. Each follicle gives rise to a single ovum.

5. A pair of long folded tube like structures called oviducts are present on either side of the ovaries.

6. Each oviduct anteriorly opens into the body cavity through a ciliated funnel called 'ostium'.

7. Posteriourly, the oviduct is enlarged into a sac called ovisac or uterus. It stores the ova for sometime.

8. Oviducts open into the cloaca, and it is outside through cloacal aperture.

9. The ova which are released by ovaries into abdomen, are accepted by ostium and are passed through oviducts into cloaca.

10. Finally the ova are discharged out from cloaca through cloacal aperture.

11. Describe male Reproductive system of Earth worm?

Male Reproductive system of Earth worm:

- Male Reproductive system of Earthworm consist of mainly three parts. 

They are

 1. Two pairs of Testis 

2. Two pairs of seminal vesicles. 

3. A pairof vas differens.

- Two pairs of Testis are present in 10th and 11thsegments.

- Testis produce sperm mother cells. The sperm mother cells get mature into sperms or spermatozoa in the bag like structure called seminal vesicles.

- Matured sperms pass through the vas deference and are released out through male genital aperture

- Testis mature much earlier than the ovaries and this prevents self fertilization in "Earth worm".

- Three pairs of spermathecae are present in 7th, 8th, 9th segment of earthworm. Each segment consist of pair of spermathecae.

- During copulation 'spermatozoa' of earthworm are passed into the other earthworm and are stored in spermathecae.

12. Describe female reproductive system of Earthworm?

Female Reproductive system of Earth worm:

- Female Reproductive system of Earthworm consist of mainly three parts. 

They are 1. a pair of ovaries. 

2. A pain of oviducts. 

3. Female genital aperture.

- A pair of ovaries are present on each side of the ventral nerve cord in the 13th segment. Ova are produced by ovaries. Each ovary has one oviduct, which opens to the outside through female genital aperture.

- Ova which are produced in ovaries are sent out from the body through genital aperture.

13. Describe about conjugation in paramoecium?

Conjugation in Paramoecium:

Conjugation is a method of sexual Reproduction in paramoecium. Paramoecium consist of two nuclei, they are

1. Macro nucleus 2. Micro nucleus.

- The paramoecium that undergo conjugation are called conjugants, at the time of conjugation, the two conjugants unite at their oral grooves.

- Cytoplasmic bridge is formed due to disintegration of pellicle. At the same time the macronuclei present in conjugants break down and finally disappear.

- The micro nucleus of each conjugant divides by one meiotic division, As a result four nuclei are formed in each conjugant. Three nuclei disintegrate out of the four nuclei and the remaining nucleus undergoes division again to form a small and a large nucleus. The small nucleus is called as 'male pronucleus or migratory pronucleus. The large nucleus is called as female pronucleus or stationary pronucleus.

- The male pronucleus of one conjugant passes through cytoplasmic bridge and fuses with female pronucleus, resulting in the formation of diploid zygotic nucleus or synkaryon.

- The conjugants get separated after the formation of synkaryon. Now they are called as exconjugants.

- Each exconjugant synkaryon divides thrice by mitosis and forms '8' nuclei. Out of '8' nuclei three nuclei undergo disintegration. Four nuclei act as macronuclei and the remaining are as micronucleus.

- Each exconjugant with a single micronucleus and four macronuclei divides twice and form four daughter paramoecia.

- After conjugation '8' daughter paramoecia are produced from two paramoecia i.e. from each conjugant, four daughter paramoecia are formed

- Conjugation helps the paramoecia to recover the strength lost by repeated binary fissions.

Fill up the blanks

1. In house fly ____ helps in laying fertilized eggs.

2. In earth worm fertilization occurs in ____

3. Cocoon of earthworm is formed by ____

4. In megascolex, the testis are present in ____

5. The dark pigmented part of the egg of of frog is called ____

6. In the egg of frog, yolk is stored in ____ pole.

7. Amplexury pads of frog help in ____

8. Milt of frog consists of ____

9. The tubes that act as urinogenital ducts in frog are ____

10. The spawn of frog consists of ____

11. The function of spermathecae in earthworm in storage of ____

12. Fertilization in house fly is called ____

13.Exchange of nuclear material occurs in paramoecium during ____

14. In Earthworm 3 pairs of spermathecae are present in ____ segments.

15. Earthworm is ____ Animal.

Answers

1. Ovipositor

2. Cocoon

3. Clitellum

4. 10, 11, 15

5. Animal pole

6. Vegetal

7. Copulation

8. Spermatozoa

9. Ureter

10. Ova

11. Spermatozoa

12. Internal Fertilization

13. Conjugation

14. 7,8,9

15. Bi sexual

Read More...